https://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Diggafromdover&feedformat=atomSciencemadness Wiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T23:37:30ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.25.1https://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Adduct&diff=4438Adduct2016-03-29T02:01:03Z<p>Diggafromdover: </p>
<hr />
<div>An adduct is a chemical compound of different entities, usually molecules, which aggregate without any chemical bonds being broken. The classic example is sodium percarbonate (aka Oxi-Clean), which is a binary adduct of hydrogen peroxide and sodium carbonate. It is markedly more soluble than sodium carbonate. It is also way less caustic than hydrogen peroxide of equivalent molarity.<br />
<br />
Salts frequently form adducts with water, such as copper sulfate, which keeps a posse of 5 waters in crystalline form. Sodium chloride, is not an adduct; it is composed of a lattice of sodium and chloride ions.<br />
<br />
Adducts have an important role in organic chemistry. Many weak [[lewis acid]]s and [[lewis base]]s can form adducts. It may well be easier to separate the adducts of two similar compounds than to separate the compound itself. If one of the two or more bases will not form an adduct with an acid that the other will, you have a way to isolate it.<br />
<br />
Adducts are also useful in making organic compounds more soluble in water, thus making them easier to ingest.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Famous binary adducts:|| component|| component|| formula|| notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[sodium percarbonate]]|| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || [[sodium carbonate]]|| 2Na2CO3 · 3H2O2. || oxi-clean mate!<br />
|-<br />
| [[acetone sodium bisulfite]] || [[acetone]] || [[sodium bisulfite]] || NaHSO3 . (CH3)2CO || insoluble in water!<br />
|}</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Adduct&diff=4437Adduct2016-03-29T01:51:25Z<p>Diggafromdover: Adducts First Draft</p>
<hr />
<div>An adduct is a chemical compound of different entities, usually molecules, which aggregate without any chemical bonds being broken. The classic example is sodium percarbonate (aka Oxi-Clean), which is an adduct of hydrogen peroxide and sodium carbonate. It is markedly more soluble than sodium carbonate. It is also way less caustic than hydrogen peroxide of equivalent molarity.<br />
<br />
Salts frequently form adducts with water, such as copper sulfate, which keeps a posse of 5 waters in crystalline form.<br />
<br />
Adducts have an important role in organic chemistry. Many weak lewis acids and lewis bases can form adducts. It may well be easier to separate the adducts of two similar compounds than to separate the compound itself. If one of the two or more bases will not form an adduct with an acid that the other will, you have a way to isolate it.<br />
<br />
Adducts are also useful in making organic compounds more soluble in water, thus making them easier to ingest.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Famous adducts:|| component|| component|| formula|| notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[sodium percarbonate]]|| hydrogen peroxide || sodium carbonate|| 2Na2CO3 · 3H2O2. || oxi clean<br />
|-<br />
| [[acetone sodium bisulfite]] || acetone || sodium bisulfite || NaHSO3 . (CH3)2CO || insoluble in water!<br />
|}</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Adduct&diff=4436Adduct2016-03-29T01:34:58Z<p>Diggafromdover: Adducts</p>
<hr />
<div>An adduct is a chemical compound of different entities, usually molecules, which aggregate without any chemical bonds being broken. The classic example is sodium percarbonate (aka Oxi-Clean), which is an adduct of hydrogen peroxide and sodium carbonate. It is markedly more soluble than sodium carbonate. It is also way less caustic than hydrogen peroxide of equivalent molarity.<br />
<br />
Adducts have an important role in organic chemistry. Many weak lewis acids and lewis bases can form adducts. It may well be easier to separate the adducts of two similar compounds than to separate the compound itself. If one of the two or more bases will not form an adduct with an acid that the other will, you have a way to isolate it.<br />
<br />
Adducts are also useful in making organic compounds more soluble in water, thus making them easier to ingest.<br />
<br />
An adduct is not a salt. Where a salt would only have ions in its lattice, the adduct can molecules of acids and bases as well as ions.<br />
<br />
Famous Adducts:</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4212Urea2016-03-02T04:04:47Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Chemical */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids.<ref><br />
https://books.google.com/books?id=Y87aAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=urea+tartrate&source=bl&ots=PYI2nVC-By&sig=7IbwzeNy5bCPdVWiKmzSzQzq7mw&hl=en&sa=X&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwimvPTNmKDLAhXCdx4KHaUGDfkQ6AEIMzAE#v=onepage&q=urea%20tartrate&f=false</ref> Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]]. Urea is soluble in [[dimethyl sulfoxide]] (40 g/100 ml at 20-30 °C, 110 g/100 ml at 90-100 °C). <ref>http://www.gaylordchemical.com/uploads/images/pdfs/literature/102B_english.pdf Gaylord Chemical Company</ref><br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] <ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate without Nitric Acid]</ref> || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[citric acid]] <ref>http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11167-005-0579-2#page-1</ref> || || water || [[urea citrate]] ||<br />
|-<br />
|[[malonic acid]] and [[sodium ethoxide]] || ||anhydrous [[ethanol]] || [[barbituric acid]] || condensation<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4205Urea2016-03-01T01:51:21Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Reactions */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]]. Urea is soluble in [[dimethyl sulfoxide]] (40 g/100 ml at 20-30 °C, 110 g/100 ml at 90-100 °C). <ref>http://www.gaylordchemical.com/uploads/images/pdfs/literature/102B_english.pdf Gaylord Chemical Company</ref><br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] <ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate without Nitric Acid]</ref> || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[citric acid]] <ref>http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11167-005-0579-2#page-1</ref> || || water || [[urea citrate]] ||<br />
|-<br />
|[[malonic acid]] and [[sodium ethoxide]] || ||anhydrous [[ethanol]] || [[barbituric acid]] || condensation<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4204Urea2016-03-01T01:49:30Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Reactions */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]]. Urea is soluble in [[dimethyl sulfoxide]] (40 g/100 ml at 20-30 °C, 110 g/100 ml at 90-100 °C). <ref>http://www.gaylordchemical.com/uploads/images/pdfs/literature/102B_english.pdf Gaylord Chemical Company</ref><br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] <ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate without Nitric Acid]</ref> || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[citric acid]] <ref>http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11167-005-0579-2#page-1</ref> || || water || [[urea citrate]] ||<br />
|-<br />
[[malonic acid]][[sodium ethoxide]] || ||anhydrous [[ethanol]] || [[barbituric acid]] || condensation<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4203Urea2016-03-01T01:49:07Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Reactions added barbituric acid synthesis*/</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]]. Urea is soluble in [[dimethyl sulfoxide]] (40 g/100 ml at 20-30 °C, 110 g/100 ml at 90-100 °C). <ref>http://www.gaylordchemical.com/uploads/images/pdfs/literature/102B_english.pdf Gaylord Chemical Company</ref><br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] <ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate without Nitric Acid]</ref> || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[citric acid]] <ref>http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11167-005-0579-2#page-1</ref> || || water || [[urea citrate]] ||<br />
[[malonic acid]][[sodium ethoxide]] || ||anhydrous [[ethanol]] || [[barbituric acid]] || condensation<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Dimethyl_sulfoxide&diff=4195Dimethyl sulfoxide2016-02-29T03:27:51Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Physical added reference to pdf with mother lode of DMSO solvent data*/</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Dimethyl sulfoxide''' (or '''DMSO''') is an organosulfur compound with the formula '''(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>SO'''. This colorless liquid is an important polar aprotic solvent that dissolves both polar and nonpolar compounds and is miscible in a wide range of organic solvents as well as water.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
DMSO will oxidize a primary halide to form an aldehyde, process known as Kornblum oxidation.<br />
<br />
Gentle oxidation of DMSO gives dimethyl sulfone.<br />
<br />
DMSO will form trimethylsulfoxonium iodide with [[methyl iodide]]:<br />
:(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>SO + CH<sub>3</sub>I → [(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>SO]I<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
DMSO is a clear, colorless, odorless liquid at standard conditions. It is miscible with a variety of liquids, such as water, alcohol, diethyl ether. As a polar aprotic solvent, DMSO can dissolve a surprising variety of organic and inorganic compounds <ref>http://www.gaylordchemical.com/uploads/images/pdfs/literature/102B_english.pdf</ref><br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
DMSO is available at chemical suppliers. It is also commonly available at pet stores for cleaning dogs ears. In some countries, such as the Russian Federation, DMSO is sold in drugstores (it is useful for making poultices).<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
DMSO can be prepared by oxidizing [[dimethyl sulfide]] with [[oxygen]] or [[nitrogen dioxide]].<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*Organic extractions<br />
*Chemoluminescence of the Luminol-NaOH-DMSO System<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
DMSO penetrates the skin very readily and has the unusual property that many individuals perceive a garlic-like taste in the mouth after contact of DMSO with the skin. DMSO isn't very toxic, but it can act as a pathway to allow any toxic substances dissolved in it straight into the blood stream.<br />
<br />
Because DMSO easily penetrates the skin, substances dissolved in DMSO may be quickly absorbed. Glove selection is important when working with DMSO. Butyl rubber, fluoroelastomer, neoprene, or thick (15 mil) latex gloves are recommended. Nitrile gloves, which are very commonly used in chemical laboratories, may protect from brief contact but have been found to degrade rapidly with exposure to DMSO.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
DMSO should be stored in closed bottles, to prevent outside contamination. As it has a high boiling point, very little solvent evaporates over time. However, due to it's high melting point (19°C), DMSO will freeze if kept in a cold place.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
DMSO wastes should be mixed with another organic solvent and burned in an incinerator equipped with an afterburner and a scrubber.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3765 DMSO: Some Uses]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=23271 Chemoluminescence of the Luminol-NaOH-DMSO System]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Solvents]]<br />
[[Category:Polar solvents]]<br />
[[Category:Aprotic solvents]]<br />
[[Category:Sulfoxides]]<br />
[[Category:Sulfur compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Liquids]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4194Urea2016-02-29T03:21:28Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Physical */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]]. Urea is soluble in [[dimethyl sulfoxide]] (40 g/100 ml at 20-30 °C, 110 g/100 ml at 90-100 °C). <ref>http://www.gaylordchemical.com/uploads/images/pdfs/literature/102B_english.pdf Gaylord Chemical Company</ref><br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] <ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate without Nitric Acid]</ref> || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[citric acid]] <ref>http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11167-005-0579-2#page-1</ref> || || water || [[urea citrate]] ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4193Urea2016-02-29T03:03:29Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Reactions */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]].<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] <ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate without Nitric Acid]</ref> || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[citric acid]] <ref>http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11167-005-0579-2#page-1</ref> || || water || [[urea citrate]] ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4192Urea2016-02-29T02:48:31Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Reactions */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]].<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[citric acid]] <ref>http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11167-005-0579-2#page-1</ref> || || water || [[urea citrate]] ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4191Urea2016-02-29T02:47:31Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* added urea citrate to reactions */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]].<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[citric acid]] || || water || [[urea citrate]] || <ref>http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11167-005-0579-2#page-1</ref><br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4190Urea2016-02-29T02:39:33Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Reactions */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]].<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[citric acid]] || || water || [[urea citrate]] || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4189Urea2016-02-29T02:32:43Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Reactions */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]].<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Methanol&diff=4184Methanol2016-02-28T17:03:44Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Chemical */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
| Name = Methanol<br />
| Reference =<br />
| IUPACName = Methanol<br />
| PIN =<br />
| SystematicName = Methanol<br />
| OtherNames = Carbinol, Columbian spirits, Hydroxymethane, Methyl alcohol, Methyl hydrate, Methyl hydroxide, Methylic alcohol, Methylol, Pyroligneous spirit, Wood alcohol, Wood naphtha, Wood spirit<br />
<!-- Images --><br />
| ImageFile = Methanol bottle and sample.jpg<br />
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| ImageCaption = Methanol sample and its original bottle.<br />
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<!-- Sections --><br />
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers<br />
| 3DMet = <br />
| Abbreviations = <br />
| SMILES = CO<br />
}}<br />
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties<br />
| AtmosphericOHRateConstant = <br />
| Appearance = Colorless volatile liquid<br />
| BoilingPt = <br />
| BoilingPtC = 64.7<br />
| BoilingPt_ref = <br />
| BoilingPt_notes = <br />
| Density = 0.792 g/cm<sup>3</sup><br />
| Formula = CH<sub>3</sub>OH<br>CH<sub>4</sub>O<br />
| HenryConstant = <br />
| LogP = -0.69<br />
| MolarMass = 32.04 g/mol<br />
| MeltingPt = <br />
| MeltingPtC = −97.6<br />
| MeltingPt_ref = <br />
| MeltingPt_notes = <br />
| Odor = Alcoholic<br />
| pKa = 15.5<br />
| pKb = <br />
| Solubility = Miscible<br />
| SolubleOther = Miscible with [[ethanol]]<br />
| Solvent = <br />
| VaporPressure = 13.02 kPa (at 20 °C)<br />
}}<br />
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure<br />
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}}<br />
| Section5 = {{Chembox Explosive<br />
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}}<br />
| Section6 = {{Chembox Hazards<br />
| AutoignitionPt = 470 °C<br />
| ExploLimits = <br />
| ExternalMSDS = [http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927227 ScienceLab]<br />
| FlashPt = 11 to 12 °C<br />
| LD50 = 5628 mg/kg (rat, oral)<br>7300 mg/kg (mouse, oral)<br>12880 mg/kg (rat, oral)<br>14200 mg/kg (rabbit, oral)<br />
| LC50 = 64,000 ppm (rat, 4 hr)<br />
| MainHazards = Flammable<br />
| NFPA-F = <br />
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| NFPA-R = <br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
}}<br />
[[File:Methanol.png|thumb|270px|Structure of methanol]]<br />
'''Methanol''', or '''methyl alcohol''' is the simplest [[alcohol]], with the formula '''CH<sub>3</sub>OH''', also abbreviated as '''MeOH'''. It is a light, colorless, [[volatile]], flammable liquid. It is an important chemical as a solvent and feedstock organic compound.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol</ref><br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Methanol is a starting point for many organic compounds, such as [[formaldehyde]], which is produced by oxidation of methanol. Methanol vapors in air will decompose over the course of several days to form [[carbon dioxide]] and water vapor.<ref>http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=887&loc=ec_rcs#itabs-2d</ref> Methanol is used in the production of biodiesel.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Methanol is a colorless, volatile, flammable liquid. It has a molecular weight of 32.04, a boiling point of 65°C and a density of 0.7914 g/cm<sup>3</sup><ref>CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 66th Edition, 1985</ref>. Methanol/water mixtures can be separated into two layers by salting-out with [[potassium carbonate]].<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
[[File:Heet.png|thumb|259x259px]]<br />
A type of antifreeze and automotive cleaner known as Heet can be found in most gas stations in the United States and is 99% or higher methanol. Some alternative fuels are entirely or mostly made of methanol, and due to the large quantities typically sold this can be a very efficient way to purchase it. Methanol is sometimes sold at paint supply stores as wood alcohol, or methyl alcohol.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_available_chemicals#L.E2.80.93N</ref> It can also be bought from scientific suppliers in higher grades. Hardware supplies sometimes sell methanol as "methyl hydrate" or "methylated spirits". Finally, some home fireplaces use methanol as fuel, so it can be found in this manner as well. Some window cleaning solutions contain up to 70% methanol, along with water and dye, as well traces of ethanol and or isopropanol.<br />
<br />
In some countries the sale of "clean" (high purity) methanol may be regulated, due to its use in counterfeit alcohol.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Impure methanol can be obtained via destructive distillation of wood. The process is not economically viable on a small scale, and produces many side products/contaminants, [[acetic acid]], [[acetone]], and tars among them. It is still an interesting process though, and could be attempted solely for educational value.<ref>http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=2652</ref><br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*Make [[formaldehyde]]<br />
*Make [[trimethyl borate]]<br />
*Make [[methyl salicylate]] and other methyl [[ester]]s<br />
*[[Methyl iodide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Dimethyl ether]] synthesis<br />
*Direct methanol fuel cell<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Methanol is significantly more toxic than other common alcohols such as ethanol or isopropanol, as it is metabolized to [[formic acid]] in the body, causing blindness and death at high doses.<br />
<br />
Methanol flames tend to have extremely low visibility, particularly in the daytime or well-lit environments, making burning methanol difficult to detect and posing a great risk. If it is being used in instances where burning is likely, the addition of a small amount of [[boric acid]] colors the flame green and allows it to be seen.<br />
<br />
One of the most insidious traits of methanol is that is is hard to distinguish from [[ethanol]], they have a similar appearance, smell and taste. Accidentally consuming methanol may be lethal. In case if methanol is accidentally consumed, the first aid is giving the patient ethanol, orally, preferably in the form of vodka, until the state of "absolutely shit-faced", and then immediately calling the ambulance. Ethanol does not neutralize the effect of methanol but competes with it and prevents its immediate metabolism, giving the doctors more time to save the patient. If no medical attention is available, the only cure is continuously giving the patient ethanol until all methanol is purged from his organism unmetabolized. As a rule of thumb, three days of binge drinking forced upon the patient is enough to completely thwart methanol poisoning.<br />
<br />
One urban, though not very accurate, way to detect methanol involves inserting a red-hot piece of copper wire into the alcohol. If vapors have a stinging smell like "morgue" or "dissected frogs" (the odor of [[formaldehyde]]), then the alcohol contains methanol, though this method is not very reliable, and is only effective at high concentrations.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Methanol is best kept in glass bottles in dark places. Methanol should be kept out of rooms with an open flame, as it is highly volatile and flammable. Methanol bottles should be clearly marked with the name of the compound, the "skull and crossbones" sign and a clarifying addendum "This is not ethanol, you moron!", especially in houses where drinkable ethanol is also kept.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Burning methanol is a good way to destroy it. A good tip is to make the flame visible with some sort of salt and try not to burn too much at once, to prevent its vaporization in the air or inhalation of partial oxidation products such as formaldehyde, formic acid, or carbon monoxide.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references /><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=132 Methanol -> methanal](formaldehyde)<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=2652 Destructive Distillation of Wood]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=30427 Methanol Synthesis](Newer thread)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Alcohols]]<br />
[[Category:Primary alcohols]]<br />
[[Category:Solvents]]<br />
[[Category:Polar solvents]]<br />
[[Category:Amphiphilic solvents]]<br />
[[Category:Volatile chemicals]]<br />
[[Category:Neurotoxins]]<br />
[[Category:Things that can kill you very quickly]]<br />
[[Category:Liquids]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Methanol&diff=4183Methanol2016-02-28T17:03:01Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Chemical added text about use in biodiesel */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
| Name = Methanol<br />
| Reference =<br />
| IUPACName = Methanol<br />
| PIN =<br />
| SystematicName = Methanol<br />
| OtherNames = Carbinol, Columbian spirits, Hydroxymethane, Methyl alcohol, Methyl hydrate, Methyl hydroxide, Methylic alcohol, Methylol, Pyroligneous spirit, Wood alcohol, Wood naphtha, Wood spirit<br />
<!-- Images --><br />
| ImageFile = Methanol bottle and sample.jpg<br />
| ImageSize = 300<br />
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| ImageCaption = Methanol sample and its original bottle.<br />
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<!-- Sections --><br />
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers<br />
| 3DMet = <br />
| Abbreviations = <br />
| SMILES = CO<br />
}}<br />
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties<br />
| AtmosphericOHRateConstant = <br />
| Appearance = Colorless volatile liquid<br />
| BoilingPt = <br />
| BoilingPtC = 64.7<br />
| BoilingPt_ref = <br />
| BoilingPt_notes = <br />
| Density = 0.792 g/cm<sup>3</sup><br />
| Formula = CH<sub>3</sub>OH<br>CH<sub>4</sub>O<br />
| HenryConstant = <br />
| LogP = -0.69<br />
| MolarMass = 32.04 g/mol<br />
| MeltingPt = <br />
| MeltingPtC = −97.6<br />
| MeltingPt_ref = <br />
| MeltingPt_notes = <br />
| Odor = Alcoholic<br />
| pKa = 15.5<br />
| pKb = <br />
| Solubility = Miscible<br />
| SolubleOther = Miscible with [[ethanol]]<br />
| Solvent = <br />
| VaporPressure = 13.02 kPa (at 20 °C)<br />
}}<br />
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure<br />
| Coordination = <br />
| CrystalStruct = <br />
| MolShape = <br />
}}<br />
| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry<br />
| DeltaGf = <br />
| DeltaHc = <br />
| DeltaHf = <br />
| Entropy = <br />
| HeatCapacity = <br />
}}<br />
| Section5 = {{Chembox Explosive<br />
| ShockSens = Non-explosive<br />
| FrictionSens = <br />
| DetonationV = <br />
| REFactor = <br />
}}<br />
| Section6 = {{Chembox Hazards<br />
| AutoignitionPt = 470 °C<br />
| ExploLimits = <br />
| ExternalMSDS = [http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927227 ScienceLab]<br />
| FlashPt = 11 to 12 °C<br />
| LD50 = 5628 mg/kg (rat, oral)<br>7300 mg/kg (mouse, oral)<br>12880 mg/kg (rat, oral)<br>14200 mg/kg (rabbit, oral)<br />
| LC50 = 64,000 ppm (rat, 4 hr)<br />
| MainHazards = Flammable<br />
| NFPA-F = <br />
| NFPA-H = <br />
| NFPA-R = <br />
| NFPA-S = <br />
}}<br />
| Section7 = {{Chembox Related<br />
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}}<br />
}}<br />
[[File:Methanol.png|thumb|270px|Structure of methanol]]<br />
'''Methanol''', or '''methyl alcohol''' is the simplest [[alcohol]], with the formula '''CH<sub>3</sub>OH''', also abbreviated as '''MeOH'''. It is a light, colorless, [[volatile]], flammable liquid. It is an important chemical as a solvent and feedstock organic compound.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol</ref><br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Methanol is a starting point for many organic compounds, such as [[formaldehyde]], which is produced by oxidation of methanol. Methanol vapors in air will decompose over the course of several days to form [[carbon dioxide]] and water vapor.<ref>http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=887&loc=ec_rcs#itabs-2d</ref> Methanol is used in the production biodiesel.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Methanol is a colorless, volatile, flammable liquid. It has a molecular weight of 32.04, a boiling point of 65°C and a density of 0.7914 g/cm<sup>3</sup><ref>CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 66th Edition, 1985</ref>. Methanol/water mixtures can be separated into two layers by salting-out with [[potassium carbonate]].<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
[[File:Heet.png|thumb|259x259px]]<br />
A type of antifreeze and automotive cleaner known as Heet can be found in most gas stations in the United States and is 99% or higher methanol. Some alternative fuels are entirely or mostly made of methanol, and due to the large quantities typically sold this can be a very efficient way to purchase it. Methanol is sometimes sold at paint supply stores as wood alcohol, or methyl alcohol.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_available_chemicals#L.E2.80.93N</ref> It can also be bought from scientific suppliers in higher grades. Hardware supplies sometimes sell methanol as "methyl hydrate" or "methylated spirits". Finally, some home fireplaces use methanol as fuel, so it can be found in this manner as well. Some window cleaning solutions contain up to 70% methanol, along with water and dye, as well traces of ethanol and or isopropanol.<br />
<br />
In some countries the sale of "clean" (high purity) methanol may be regulated, due to its use in counterfeit alcohol.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Impure methanol can be obtained via destructive distillation of wood. The process is not economically viable on a small scale, and produces many side products/contaminants, [[acetic acid]], [[acetone]], and tars among them. It is still an interesting process though, and could be attempted solely for educational value.<ref>http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=2652</ref><br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*Make [[formaldehyde]]<br />
*Make [[trimethyl borate]]<br />
*Make [[methyl salicylate]] and other methyl [[ester]]s<br />
*[[Methyl iodide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Dimethyl ether]] synthesis<br />
*Direct methanol fuel cell<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Methanol is significantly more toxic than other common alcohols such as ethanol or isopropanol, as it is metabolized to [[formic acid]] in the body, causing blindness and death at high doses.<br />
<br />
Methanol flames tend to have extremely low visibility, particularly in the daytime or well-lit environments, making burning methanol difficult to detect and posing a great risk. If it is being used in instances where burning is likely, the addition of a small amount of [[boric acid]] colors the flame green and allows it to be seen.<br />
<br />
One of the most insidious traits of methanol is that is is hard to distinguish from [[ethanol]], they have a similar appearance, smell and taste. Accidentally consuming methanol may be lethal. In case if methanol is accidentally consumed, the first aid is giving the patient ethanol, orally, preferably in the form of vodka, until the state of "absolutely shit-faced", and then immediately calling the ambulance. Ethanol does not neutralize the effect of methanol but competes with it and prevents its immediate metabolism, giving the doctors more time to save the patient. If no medical attention is available, the only cure is continuously giving the patient ethanol until all methanol is purged from his organism unmetabolized. As a rule of thumb, three days of binge drinking forced upon the patient is enough to completely thwart methanol poisoning.<br />
<br />
One urban, though not very accurate, way to detect methanol involves inserting a red-hot piece of copper wire into the alcohol. If vapors have a stinging smell like "morgue" or "dissected frogs" (the odor of [[formaldehyde]]), then the alcohol contains methanol, though this method is not very reliable, and is only effective at high concentrations.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Methanol is best kept in glass bottles in dark places. Methanol should be kept out of rooms with an open flame, as it is highly volatile and flammable. Methanol bottles should be clearly marked with the name of the compound, the "skull and crossbones" sign and a clarifying addendum "This is not ethanol, you moron!", especially in houses where drinkable ethanol is also kept.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Burning methanol is a good way to destroy it. A good tip is to make the flame visible with some sort of salt and try not to burn too much at once, to prevent its vaporization in the air or inhalation of partial oxidation products such as formaldehyde, formic acid, or carbon monoxide.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references /><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=132 Methanol -> methanal](formaldehyde)<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=2652 Destructive Distillation of Wood]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=30427 Methanol Synthesis](Newer thread)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Alcohols]]<br />
[[Category:Primary alcohols]]<br />
[[Category:Solvents]]<br />
[[Category:Polar solvents]]<br />
[[Category:Amphiphilic solvents]]<br />
[[Category:Volatile chemicals]]<br />
[[Category:Neurotoxins]]<br />
[[Category:Things that can kill you very quickly]]<br />
[[Category:Liquids]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4182Urea2016-02-28T16:55:25Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Reactions */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]].<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" border="0"<br />
!Urea reacts with:<br />
|- style="border=1 cellpadding=2"<br />
| reagent|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- <br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|-<br />
| [[hydrogen peroxide]] || ||water|| [[urea peroxide]] || exothermic<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea&diff=4181Urea2016-02-28T16:34:20Z<p>Diggafromdover: Added test reactions table, seeking comment</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Urea.png|thumb|220x220px]]<br />
'''Urea''' or '''carbamide''', is an organic compound commonly used as a fertilizer. It has the chemical formula (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO. Urea was the first organic chemical produced from inorganic chemicals, a breakthrough in chemistry, which proved organic substances can be produced from inorganic substances, disproving the notion of vitalism.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Thermal decomposition of urea produces ammonium isocyanate, who in turn yields isocyanuric acid.<br />
:NH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> → NH<sub>4</sub>NCO → HNCO + NH<sub>3</sub><br />
<br />
Urea is a weak organic base. It forms salts with strong acids. Despite its two amino groups, it acts as a monoprotic base, only accepting one H+ cation. With diprotic acids such as sulfuric, urea forms two types of salts: monocarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium bisulfate, analogous to inorganic bisulfates) and dicarbamide dihydrosulfate (carbamonium sulfate, analogous to inorganic sulfates).<br />
<br />
A frequent contaminant of urea is [[Biuret]]. A high concentration of Biuret mitigates against using urea as a crop fertilizer, but makes it more valuable as an animal feed additive.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea is a white crystalline substance. Its melting point is between 133-135 °C. Urea is soluble in water (107.9 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and when dissolved, it is neutral on the pH scale. Urea is soluble in [[glycerol]] (500 g/L) and slightly less soluble in [[ethanol]].<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Urea is available as a fertilizer, either pure or mixed with other substances. It can be very cheaply purchased online, often at less than $5/kg. <br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencecompany.com/Urea-500g-P16216.aspx ScienceCompany] sells 500g of lab grade urea at 16.95 $.<br />
<br />
Ebay has many listings for urea as a [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Lab-Chemicals-/104233/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 lab chemical] and as [http://www.ebay.com/sch/Fertilizers-/119683/i.html?_from=R40&_nkw=urea&_sop=15 fertilizer]<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea was first synthesized by reacting [[silver cyanate]] with [[ammonium chloride]].<br />
:AgNCO + NH<sub>4</sub>Cl → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + AgCl<br />
<br />
Industrially it is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[ammonium carbamate]].<br />
<br />
It can also be produced from the reaction of [[phosgene]] and [[ammonia]]<br />
:COCl<sub>2</sub> + 4 NH<sub>3</sub> → (NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO + 2 NH<sub>4</sub>Cl<br />
<br />
==Reactions==<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+Urea reacts with:<br />
|-<br />
| reagent|| catalyst|| solvent || product || reaction notes <br />
|- <br />
| [[nitric acid]]|| || water || [[urea nitrate]] || exothermic<br />
|-<br />
| [[potassium nitrate]] || [[hydrochloric acid]] || water|| [[urea nitrate]] || replacement<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*[[Urea nitrate]] synthesis<br />
*[[Sodium azide]] synthesis<br />
*[[Hydrazine sulfate]](Hoffman Rearrangement)<br />
*Thermal decomposition of molten urea to biuret and ammonia.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea is non-toxic, though is may cause irritations to sensitive tissues. It may corrode metallic surfaces, even the more resistant forms of stainless steel.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea doesn't require any special storage, and can be safely stored in glass, metal, plastic or ceramic containers.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
As urea is a good fertilizer, it can be safely dumped in the soil, although it's recommended to avoid dumping it in water reservoirs to prevent the growth on unwanted algae. It can also be used to as a nitrogen source for aerobic bacteria in the conversion of sawdust to compost.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=3386 Urea Synthesis]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Bases]]<br />
[[Category:Organic bases]]<br />
[[Category:Readily available chemicals]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_peroxide&diff=4058Urea peroxide2016-02-23T02:55:16Z<p>Diggafromdover: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
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Urea peroxide is a crystalline adduct composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. It is used in commercial tooth-whiteners, and to loosen impacted earwax. It is also used to make plastics.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
urea peroxide is a convenient replacement for 90% hydrogen peroxide in oxidation reactions.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea peroxide is a free flowing white powder.<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
97% urea peroxide is available from Sigma Aldrich.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea peroxide is prepared by combining 3:2 molar quantities of hydrogen peroxide and urea.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
<br />
===Safety===<br />
Inhalation of dust causes irritation of nose from hydrogen peroxide formed when heated. Contact with eyes causes severe damage. Contact with moist skin causes temporary itching or burning sensation. Ingestion causes irritation of mouth and stomach.<br />
<br />
Forms dangerous peroxides with ethers and ketones.<br />
<br />
Can be made to explode.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent. Liable to spontaneous combustion when heated or in contact with organic materials. The contents of a screw-capped brown glass bottle spontaneously erupted after four years storage at ambient temperature. [MCA Case History No. 719]. Combustion may release Irritating ammonia gas.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Breaks down to urea and hydrogen peroxide in water.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*<<http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=23477 Synthesis of Carbamide Peroxide?>><br />
<br />
[[Category:hydrogen peroxide adducts]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_peroxide&diff=4057Urea peroxide2016-02-23T02:43:30Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Physical */</p>
<hr />
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Urea peroxide is a crystalline adduct composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. It is used in commercial tooth-whiteners, and to loosen impacted earwax. It is also used to make plastics.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
urea peroxide is a convenient way to introduce hydrogen peroxide to a reaction.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea peroxide is a free flowing white powder.<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
97% urea peroxide is available from Sigma Aldrich.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea peroxide is prepared by combining 3:2 molar quantities of hydrogen peroxide and urea.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
<br />
===Safety===<br />
Inhalation of dust causes irritation of nose from hydrogen peroxide formed when heated. Contact with eyes causes severe damage. Contact with moist skin causes temporary itching or burning sensation. Ingestion causes irritation of mouth and stomach.<br />
<br />
Forms dangerous peroxides with ethers and ketones.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent. Liable to spontaneous combustion when heated or in contact with organic materials. The contents of a screw-capped brown glass bottle spontaneously erupted after four years storage at ambient temperature. [MCA Case History No. 719]. Combustion may release Irritating ammonia gas.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Breaks down to urea and hydrogen peroxide in water.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*<<http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=23477 Synthesis of Carbamide Peroxide?>><br />
<br />
[[Category:hydrogen peroxide adducts]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_peroxide&diff=4056Urea peroxide2016-02-23T02:42:49Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Chemical */</p>
<hr />
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}}<br />
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties<br />
| AtmosphericOHRateConstant = <br />
| Appearance =White solid <br />
| BoilingPt = <br />
| BoilingPtC = <br />
| BoilingPt_ref = <br />
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| Density = <br />
| Formula =CH6N2O3 <br />
| HenryConstant = <br />
| LogP = <br />
| MolarMass =94.07 g·mol−1<br />
| MeltingPt = <br />
| MeltingPtC = <br />
| MeltingPt_ref = <br />
| MeltingPt_notes = 75 to 91.5 °C (167.0 to 196.7 °F; 348.1 to 364.6 K) (decomposes)<br />
| pKa = <br />
| pKb = <br />
| Solubility = 500<br />
| SolubleOther = <br />
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| VaporPressure = 23.3 mm Hg ( 30 °C)<br />
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| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure<br />
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| Section6 = {{Chembox Hazards<br />
| AutoignitionPt = <br />
| ExploLimits = <br />
| ExternalMSDS = <br />
| FlashPt = <br />
| LD50 = <br />
| LC50 = <br />
| MainHazards = <br />
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| OtherCompounds = <br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
Urea peroxide is a crystalline adduct composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. It is used in commercial tooth-whiteners, and to loosen impacted earwax. It is also used to make plastics.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
urea peroxide is a convenient way to introduce hydrogen peroxide to a reaction.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
97% urea peroxide is available from Sigma Aldrich.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea peroxide is prepared by combining 3:2 molar quantities of hydrogen peroxide and urea.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
<br />
===Safety===<br />
Inhalation of dust causes irritation of nose from hydrogen peroxide formed when heated. Contact with eyes causes severe damage. Contact with moist skin causes temporary itching or burning sensation. Ingestion causes irritation of mouth and stomach.<br />
<br />
Forms dangerous peroxides with ethers and ketones.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent. Liable to spontaneous combustion when heated or in contact with organic materials. The contents of a screw-capped brown glass bottle spontaneously erupted after four years storage at ambient temperature. [MCA Case History No. 719]. Combustion may release Irritating ammonia gas.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Breaks down to urea and hydrogen peroxide in water.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*<<http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=23477 Synthesis of Carbamide Peroxide?>><br />
<br />
[[Category:hydrogen peroxide adducts]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_peroxide&diff=4055Urea peroxide2016-02-23T02:41:17Z<p>Diggafromdover: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
| Name =urea peroxide<br />
| Reference =<br />
| IUPACName =<br />
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| SystematicName =<br />
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| ''Carbamide Peroxide''<br />
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| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties<br />
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}}<br />
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| DetonationV = <br />
| REFactor = <br />
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| Section6 = {{Chembox Hazards<br />
| AutoignitionPt = <br />
| ExploLimits = <br />
| ExternalMSDS = <br />
| FlashPt = <br />
| LD50 = <br />
| LC50 = <br />
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| NFPA-H = <br />
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}}<br />
Urea peroxide is a crystalline adduct composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. It is used in commercial tooth-whiteners, and to loosen impacted earwax. It is also used to make plastics.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
97% urea peroxide is available from Sigma Aldrich.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea peroxide is prepared by combining 3:2 molar quantities of hydrogen peroxide and urea.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
<br />
===Safety===<br />
Inhalation of dust causes irritation of nose from hydrogen peroxide formed when heated. Contact with eyes causes severe damage. Contact with moist skin causes temporary itching or burning sensation. Ingestion causes irritation of mouth and stomach.<br />
<br />
Forms dangerous peroxides with ethers and ketones.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent. Liable to spontaneous combustion when heated or in contact with organic materials. The contents of a screw-capped brown glass bottle spontaneously erupted after four years storage at ambient temperature. [MCA Case History No. 719]. Combustion may release Irritating ammonia gas.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Breaks down to urea and hydrogen peroxide in water.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*<<http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=23477 Synthesis of Carbamide Peroxide?>><br />
<br />
[[Category:hydrogen peroxide adducts]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_peroxide&diff=4054Urea peroxide2016-02-23T02:37:32Z<p>Diggafromdover: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
| Name =urea peroxide<br />
| Reference =<br />
| IUPACName =<br />
| PIN =<br />
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| ''Carbamide Peroxide''<br />
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...<br />
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<!-- Images --><br />
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| Abbreviations = <br />
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| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties<br />
| AtmosphericOHRateConstant = <br />
| Appearance =White solid <br />
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| BoilingPtC = <br />
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| Formula =CH6N2O3 <br />
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| LogP = <br />
| MolarMass =94.07 g·mol−1<br />
| MeltingPt = <br />
| MeltingPtC = <br />
| MeltingPt_ref = <br />
| MeltingPt_notes = 75 to 91.5 °C (167.0 to 196.7 °F; 348.1 to 364.6 K) (decomposes)<br />
| pKa = <br />
| pKb = <br />
| Solubility = 500<br />
| SolubleOther = <br />
| Solvent = <br />
| VaporPressure = 23.3 mm Hg ( 30 °C)<br />
}}<br />
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure<br />
| Coordination = <br />
| CrystalStruct = <br />
| MolShape = <br />
}}<br />
| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry<br />
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| Entropy = <br />
| HeatCapacity = <br />
}}<br />
| Section5 = {{Chembox Explosive<br />
| ShockSens = <br />
| FrictionSens = <br />
| DetonationV = <br />
| REFactor = <br />
}}<br />
| Section6 = {{Chembox Hazards<br />
| AutoignitionPt = <br />
| ExploLimits = <br />
| ExternalMSDS = <br />
| FlashPt = <br />
| LD50 = <br />
| LC50 = <br />
| MainHazards = <br />
| NFPA-F = <br />
| NFPA-H = <br />
| NFPA-R = <br />
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}}<br />
| Section7 = {{Chembox Related<br />
| OtherAnions = <br />
| OtherCations = <br />
| OtherFunction = <br />
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}}<br />
}}<br />
Urea peroxide is a crystalline adduct composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. It is used in commercial tooth-whiteners, and to loosen impacted earwax. It is also used to make plastics.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
97% urea peroxide is available from Sigma Aldrich.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea peroxide is prepared by combining 3:2 molar quantities of hydrogen peroxide and urea.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
<br />
===Safety===<br />
Inhalation of dust causes irritation of nose from hydrogen peroxide formed when heated. Contact with eyes causes severe damage. Contact with moist skin causes temporary itching or burning sensation. Ingestion causes irritation of mouth and stomach.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Urea hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent. Liable to spontaneous combustion when heated or in contact with organic materials. The contents of a screw-capped brown glass bottle spontaneously erupted after four years storage at ambient temperature. [MCA Case History No. 719]. Combustion may release Irritating ammonia gas.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Breaks down to urea and hydrogen peroxide in water.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*<<http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=23477 Synthesis of Carbamide Peroxide?>></div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_peroxide&diff=4053Urea peroxide2016-02-23T02:16:12Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Availability */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
| Name =urea peroxide<br />
| Reference =<br />
| IUPACName =<br />
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| 3DMet = <br />
| Abbreviations = <br />
| SMILES = <br />
}}<br />
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties<br />
| AtmosphericOHRateConstant = <br />
| Appearance =White solid <br />
| BoilingPt = <br />
| BoilingPtC = <br />
| BoilingPt_ref = <br />
| BoilingPt_notes = <br />
| Density = <br />
| Formula =CH6N2O3 <br />
| HenryConstant = <br />
| LogP = <br />
| MolarMass =94.07 g·mol−1<br />
| MeltingPt = <br />
| MeltingPtC = <br />
| MeltingPt_ref = <br />
| MeltingPt_notes = 75 to 91.5 °C (167.0 to 196.7 °F; 348.1 to 364.6 K) (decomposes)<br />
| pKa = <br />
| pKb = <br />
| Solubility = <br />
| SolubleOther = <br />
| Solvent = <br />
| VaporPressure = <br />
}}<br />
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure<br />
| Coordination = <br />
| CrystalStruct = <br />
| MolShape = <br />
}}<br />
| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry<br />
| DeltaGf = <br />
| DeltaHc = <br />
| DeltaHf = <br />
| Entropy = <br />
| HeatCapacity = <br />
}}<br />
| Section5 = {{Chembox Explosive<br />
| ShockSens = <br />
| FrictionSens = <br />
| DetonationV = <br />
| REFactor = <br />
}}<br />
| Section6 = {{Chembox Hazards<br />
| AutoignitionPt = <br />
| ExploLimits = <br />
| ExternalMSDS = <br />
| FlashPt = <br />
| LD50 = <br />
| LC50 = <br />
| MainHazards = <br />
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| NFPA-H = <br />
| NFPA-R = <br />
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}}<br />
| Section7 = {{Chembox Related<br />
| OtherAnions = <br />
| OtherCations = <br />
| OtherFunction = <br />
| OtherFunction_label = <br />
| OtherCompounds = <br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
Urea peroxide is a crystalline adduct composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. It is used in commercial tooth-whiteners.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
97% urea peroxide is available from Sigma Aldrich.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea peroxide is prepared by combining equal molar quantities of hydrogen peroxide and urea.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
<br />
===Safety===<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_peroxide&diff=4052Urea peroxide2016-02-23T02:15:11Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Urea Peroxide */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
| Name =urea peroxide<br />
| Reference =<br />
| IUPACName =<br />
| PIN =<br />
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| ''Carbamide Peroxide''<br />
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...<br />
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<!-- Sections --><br />
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers<br />
| 3DMet = <br />
| Abbreviations = <br />
| SMILES = <br />
}}<br />
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties<br />
| AtmosphericOHRateConstant = <br />
| Appearance =White solid <br />
| BoilingPt = <br />
| BoilingPtC = <br />
| BoilingPt_ref = <br />
| BoilingPt_notes = <br />
| Density = <br />
| Formula =CH6N2O3 <br />
| HenryConstant = <br />
| LogP = <br />
| MolarMass =94.07 g·mol−1<br />
| MeltingPt = <br />
| MeltingPtC = <br />
| MeltingPt_ref = <br />
| MeltingPt_notes = 75 to 91.5 °C (167.0 to 196.7 °F; 348.1 to 364.6 K) (decomposes)<br />
| pKa = <br />
| pKb = <br />
| Solubility = <br />
| SolubleOther = <br />
| Solvent = <br />
| VaporPressure = <br />
}}<br />
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure<br />
| Coordination = <br />
| CrystalStruct = <br />
| MolShape = <br />
}}<br />
| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry<br />
| DeltaGf = <br />
| DeltaHc = <br />
| DeltaHf = <br />
| Entropy = <br />
| HeatCapacity = <br />
}}<br />
| Section5 = {{Chembox Explosive<br />
| ShockSens = <br />
| FrictionSens = <br />
| DetonationV = <br />
| REFactor = <br />
}}<br />
| Section6 = {{Chembox Hazards<br />
| AutoignitionPt = <br />
| ExploLimits = <br />
| ExternalMSDS = <br />
| FlashPt = <br />
| LD50 = <br />
| LC50 = <br />
| MainHazards = <br />
| NFPA-F = <br />
| NFPA-H = <br />
| NFPA-R = <br />
| NFPA-S = <br />
}}<br />
| Section7 = {{Chembox Related<br />
| OtherAnions = <br />
| OtherCations = <br />
| OtherFunction = <br />
| OtherFunction_label = <br />
| OtherCompounds = <br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
Urea peroxide is a crystalline adduct composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. It is used in commercial tooth-whiteners.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Delete this section if not applicable<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea peroxide is prepared by combining equal molar quantities of hydrogen peroxide and urea.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
<br />
===Safety===<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_peroxide&diff=4051Urea peroxide2016-02-23T02:10:16Z<p>Diggafromdover: Created page with "{{Chembox | Name =urea peroxide | Reference = | IUPACName = | PIN = | SystematicName = | OtherNames = {{Unbulleted list | ''Carbamide Peroxide'' | ''name2'' ... | ''na..."</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
| Name =urea peroxide<br />
| Reference =<br />
| IUPACName =<br />
| PIN =<br />
| SystematicName =<br />
| OtherNames = {{Unbulleted list<br />
| ''Carbamide Peroxide''<br />
| ''name2''<br />
...<br />
| ''name50''<br />
}}<br />
<!-- Images --><br />
| ImageFile = <br />
| ImageSize = <br />
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<!-- Sections --><br />
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers<br />
| 3DMet = <br />
| Abbreviations = <br />
| SMILES = <br />
}}<br />
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties<br />
| AtmosphericOHRateConstant = <br />
| Appearance =White solid <br />
| BoilingPt = <br />
| BoilingPtC = <br />
| BoilingPt_ref = <br />
| BoilingPt_notes = <br />
| Density = <br />
| Formula =CH6N2O3 <br />
| HenryConstant = <br />
| LogP = <br />
| MolarMass =94.07 g·mol−1<br />
| MeltingPt = <br />
| MeltingPtC = <br />
| MeltingPt_ref = <br />
| MeltingPt_notes = 75 to 91.5 °C (167.0 to 196.7 °F; 348.1 to 364.6 K) (decomposes)<br />
| pKa = <br />
| pKb = <br />
| Solubility = <br />
| SolubleOther = <br />
| Solvent = <br />
| VaporPressure = <br />
}}<br />
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure<br />
| Coordination = <br />
| CrystalStruct = <br />
| MolShape = <br />
}}<br />
| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry<br />
| DeltaGf = <br />
| DeltaHc = <br />
| DeltaHf = <br />
| Entropy = <br />
| HeatCapacity = <br />
}}<br />
| Section5 = {{Chembox Explosive<br />
| ShockSens = <br />
| FrictionSens = <br />
| DetonationV = <br />
| REFactor = <br />
}}<br />
| Section6 = {{Chembox Hazards<br />
| AutoignitionPt = <br />
| ExploLimits = <br />
| ExternalMSDS = <br />
| FlashPt = <br />
| LD50 = <br />
| LC50 = <br />
| MainHazards = <br />
| NFPA-F = <br />
| NFPA-H = <br />
| NFPA-R = <br />
| NFPA-S = <br />
}}<br />
| Section7 = {{Chembox Related<br />
| OtherAnions = <br />
| OtherCations = <br />
| OtherFunction = <br />
| OtherFunction_label = <br />
| OtherCompounds = <br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
Urea peroxide is a solid composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. It is used in commercial tooth-whiteners.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Delete this section if not applicable<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Delete this section if not applicable<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
<br />
===Safety===<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Sodium_sulfate&diff=4042Sodium sulfate2016-02-22T01:57:30Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Chemical */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Sodium sulfate''', also known as '''Glauber's salt''' or '''sal mirabilis''', is a chemical compound with the formula Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, useful for drying.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Sodium sulfate will react with carbon at high temperatures, to yield [[sodium sulfide]]:<br />
<br />
:Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + 2 C → Na<sub>2</sub>S + 2 CO<sub>2</sub><br />
<br />
Sodium sulfate is known to form double salts, such as alums, NaAl(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> (unstable above 39 °C) and NaCr(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> and even with other alkali metals, one example being Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>·3K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>.<br />
<br />
Aqueous solutions of sodium sulfate are pH neutral.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Sodium sulfate is a white deliquescent hygroscopic solid, poorly soluble in water (19.5 g/100 ml at 20 °C for anhydrous salt and 44 g/100 mL at 20 °C for decahydrate). It is insoluble in ethanol. Sodium sulfate has a density of 2.664 g/cm<sup>3</sup> for the anhydrous form and 1.464 g/cm<sup>3</sup> for the decahydrate. Its anhydrous form melts at 884 °C.<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Sodium sulfate is available at pharmacies as Glauber's salt. Some products might also contain around 10% [[sodium bicarbonate]]. This can be removed by adding sulfuric acid or sodium bisulfite. In some countries, such as the Russian Federation, it is added into dry alkaline drain cleaners as a weak surfactant; it can be easily separated from the alkali, because the alkali in the drain cleaner is in form of large granules, and sal mirabilis a fine powder. Any household sieve or even dry gauze cloth will do the trick.<br />
<br />
Sodium sulfate occurs naturally as the minerals '''thenardite''' (anhydrous Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) and '''mirabilite''' (Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>·10H<sub>2</sub>O). Both forms appear depending on the weather conditions.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Sodium sulfate can be prepared by reacting a sodium salt or hydroxide with sulfuric acid or another soluble sulfate. It can also be prepared by reacting sodium bisulfite with another sodium compound, such as sodium chloride. Because of it's low solubility, sodium sulfate will precipitate. The resulting solid is filtered and dried to obtain the useful anhydrous form.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*Desiccator<br />
*Dry solvents<br />
*Make sodium aluminium sulfate<br />
*Electrolysis of water<br />
*Thermal energy storage<br />
*Sodium sulfide synthesis<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Sodium sulfate is generally regarded as non-toxic, although its anhydrous form may cause irritations if touched or inhaled.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Anhydrous sodium sulfate should be stored in sealed bottles, in a dry place. The hydrated form doesn't require special storage.<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Sodium sulfate can be poured down the drain, as long as it doesn't contain other toxic products.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=14849 Manufacturing of sodium sulfate from “salt cake”]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=39414 Extraction of sodium sulfate from powder detergent]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=29820 Niche uses for Sodium Sulfate?]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=63460 Overrun with sal mirabilis!]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Inorganic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Sodium compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Sulfates]]<br />
[[Category:Easily prepared chemicals]]<br />
[[Category:Chemicals for crystal growing]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=User:Diggafromdover&diff=3967User:Diggafromdover2016-02-20T15:43:38Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* note to Mabus */</p>
<hr />
<div>When I was young an foolish, I got a degree in <br />
Chemistry. Because I was young and foolish, I never used it - until now...<br />
<br />
Note to Mabus - I will forever forward render chemical names in lower case.</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Alcohol&diff=3966Alcohol2016-02-20T15:41:40Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Dehydration */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Stub}}<br />
<br />
Alcohols are organic compounds which contain a hydroxyl functional group (-OH) bonded to a saturated [[carbon]] atom.<br />
<br />
== Types of Alcohols ==<br />
Alcohols are divided according to the type of [[carbon]] atom to which the hydroxyl functional group is bonded:<br />
* [[Primary alcohol|Primary alcohols]]<br />
** Primary alcohols are ones in which the carbon atom that is bonded to a hydroxyl functional group is bounded to only one other carbon atom.<br />
** [[Primary alcohol|Primary alcohols]] are first oxidized to [[Aldehyde|aldehydes]], then to [[Carboxylic acid|carboxylic acids]].<br />
* [[Secondary alcohol|Secondary alcohols]]<br />
** Secondary alcohols are ones in which the carbon atom that is bonded to a hydroxyl functional group is bounded to two other carbon atom.<br />
** [[Secondary alcohol|Secondary alcohols]] are oxidized to [[Ketone|ketones]].<br />
* [[Tertiary alcohol|Tertiary alcohols]]<br />
** Tertiary alcohols are ones in which the carbon atom that is bonded to a hydroxyl functional group is bounded to three other carbon atom.<br />
** [[Tertiary alcohol|Tertiary alcohols]] cannot be oxidized.<br />
[[File:Types of Alcohols.png|thumb|470x470px|centre]]<br />
<br />
== Nomenclature ==<br />
<br />
=== Systematic names ===<br />
<br />
=== Common names ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Chemical Formula <br />
! IUPAC Name <br />
! Common Name <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" |''Monohydric alcohols''<br />
|-<br />
|CH<sub>3</sub>OH<br />
|[[Methanol]]<br />
|Wood alcohol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH<br />
|[[Ethanol]]<br />
|Alcohol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>7</sub>OH<br />
|[[Isopropanol|2-propanol]]<br />
|Rubbing alcohol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>9</sub>OH<br />
|1-Butanol<br />
|[[Butanol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>OH<br />
|1-Pentanol<br />
|Amyl alcohol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>33</sub>OH<br />
|Hexadecan-1-ol<br />
|Cetyl alcohol<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" |''Polyhydric alcohols''<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub><br />
|Ethane-1,2-diol<br />
|[[Ethylene glycol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>6</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub><br />
|Propane-1,2-diol<br />
|[[Propylene glycol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(OH)<sub>3</sub><br />
|Propane-1,2,3-triol<br />
|[[Glycerol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>6</sub>(OH)<sub>4</sub><br />
|Butane-1,2,3,4-tetraol<br />
|[[Erythritol]], Threitol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>7</sub>(OH)<sub>5</sub><br />
|Pentane-1,2,3,4,5-pentol<br />
|[[Xylitol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>8</sub>(OH)<sub>6</sub><br />
|Hexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol<br />
|Mannitol, [[Sorbitol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>9</sub>(OH)<sub>7</sub><br />
|Heptane-1,2,3,4,5,6,7-heptol<br />
|Volemitol<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" |''Unsaturated aliphatic alcohols''<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH<br />
|Prop-2-ene-1-ol<br />
|Allyl alcohol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>17</sub>OH<br />
|3,7-Dimethylocta-2,6-dien-1-ol<br />
|Geraniol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>OH<br />
|Prop-2-in-1-ol<br />
|Propargyl alcohol<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" |''Alicyclic alcohols''<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>(OH)<sub>6</sub><br />
|Cyclohexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol<br />
|Inositol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>19</sub>OH<br />
|2 - (2-propyl)-5-methyl-cyclohexane-1-ol<br />
|[[Menthol]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Physical and chemical properties ==<br />
<br />
== Applications ==<br />
<br />
== Preparation ==<br />
<br />
== Reactions ==<br />
<br />
=== [[Oxidation]] ===<br />
Primary alcohols can be oxidized either to [[Aldehyde|aldehydes]] or to [[Carboxylic acid|carboxylic acids]], while the [[oxidation]] of secondary alcohols normally terminates at the [[ketone]] stage. Tertiary alcohols are resistant to [[oxidation]].<br />
<br />
The direct [[oxidation]] of primary alcohols to [[Carboxylic acid|carboxylic acids]] normally proceeds via the corresponding [[aldehyde]], which is transformed via an ''aldehyde hydrate'' by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the [[carboxylic acid]].<br />
[[File:500px-Alcohol to aldehyde to acid.png|centre|thumb|446x446px|Mechanism of [[oxidation]] of primary alcohols to [[carboxylic acids]] via [[aldehydes]] and aldehyde hydrates]]<br />
Reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to [[Aldehyde|aldehydes]] are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to [[Ketone|ketones]]. These include [[Collins reagent]] and [[Dess-Martin periodinane]]. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using [[potassium permanganate]] or the [[Jones reagent]].<br />
<br />
=== Esterification ===<br />
The [[esterification]] is a reaction of an alcohol with an acid, the result is an [[ester]].<br />
<br />
More on [[Esterification|this page]].<br />
<br />
=== Dehydration ===<br />
[[Dehydration]] is a process of separating all the [[water]] molecules from the alcohol. This is done with a dehydrating agent which is more hygroscopic than the alcohol, one such example are the [[alkali metals]], dehydrated [[calcium chloride]] or anhydrous [[calcium oxide]] (quicklime)<br />
This can also be done with a 3A [[molecular sieve]].<br />
<br />
=== Deprotonation ===<br />
<br />
Deprotonation of alcohols by superbases or active metals gives salt-like compounds called alkoxides. Because most alcohols are weaker acids than water, alkoxides are typically hydrolyzed fully and irreversibly into the original alcohol and a hydroxide. Only certain alicyclic keto-alcohols such as rhodizonic acid are acidic enough to make the corresponding alkoxides stable in aqueous solution.<br />
<br />
=== Nucleophilic substitution ===<br />
<br />
== Toxicity ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
# [[wikipedia:Alcohol|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Alcohols]]<br />
[[Category:Types of chemical]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Alcohol&diff=3963Alcohol2016-02-20T15:38:42Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Dehydration altered to include CaO */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Stub}}<br />
<br />
Alcohols are organic compounds which contain a hydroxyl functional group (-OH) bonded to a saturated [[carbon]] atom.<br />
<br />
== Types of Alcohols ==<br />
Alcohols are divided according to the type of [[carbon]] atom to which the hydroxyl functional group is bonded:<br />
* [[Primary alcohol|Primary alcohols]]<br />
** Primary alcohols are ones in which the carbon atom that is bonded to a hydroxyl functional group is bounded to only one other carbon atom.<br />
** [[Primary alcohol|Primary alcohols]] are first oxidized to [[Aldehyde|aldehydes]], then to [[Carboxylic acid|carboxylic acids]].<br />
* [[Secondary alcohol|Secondary alcohols]]<br />
** Secondary alcohols are ones in which the carbon atom that is bonded to a hydroxyl functional group is bounded to two other carbon atom.<br />
** [[Secondary alcohol|Secondary alcohols]] are oxidized to [[Ketone|ketones]].<br />
* [[Tertiary alcohol|Tertiary alcohols]]<br />
** Tertiary alcohols are ones in which the carbon atom that is bonded to a hydroxyl functional group is bounded to three other carbon atom.<br />
** [[Tertiary alcohol|Tertiary alcohols]] cannot be oxidized.<br />
[[File:Types of Alcohols.png|thumb|470x470px|centre]]<br />
<br />
== Nomenclature ==<br />
<br />
=== Systematic names ===<br />
<br />
=== Common names ===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Chemical Formula <br />
! IUPAC Name <br />
! Common Name <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" |''Monohydric alcohols''<br />
|-<br />
|CH<sub>3</sub>OH<br />
|[[Methanol]]<br />
|Wood alcohol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH<br />
|[[Ethanol]]<br />
|Alcohol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>7</sub>OH<br />
|[[Isopropanol|2-propanol]]<br />
|Rubbing alcohol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>9</sub>OH<br />
|1-Butanol<br />
|[[Butanol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>OH<br />
|1-Pentanol<br />
|Amyl alcohol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>33</sub>OH<br />
|Hexadecan-1-ol<br />
|Cetyl alcohol<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" |''Polyhydric alcohols''<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub><br />
|Ethane-1,2-diol<br />
|[[Ethylene glycol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>6</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub><br />
|Propane-1,2-diol<br />
|[[Propylene glycol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(OH)<sub>3</sub><br />
|Propane-1,2,3-triol<br />
|[[Glycerol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>6</sub>(OH)<sub>4</sub><br />
|Butane-1,2,3,4-tetraol<br />
|[[Erythritol]], Threitol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>7</sub>(OH)<sub>5</sub><br />
|Pentane-1,2,3,4,5-pentol<br />
|[[Xylitol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>8</sub>(OH)<sub>6</sub><br />
|Hexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol<br />
|Mannitol, [[Sorbitol]]<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>9</sub>(OH)<sub>7</sub><br />
|Heptane-1,2,3,4,5,6,7-heptol<br />
|Volemitol<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" |''Unsaturated aliphatic alcohols''<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH<br />
|Prop-2-ene-1-ol<br />
|Allyl alcohol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>17</sub>OH<br />
|3,7-Dimethylocta-2,6-dien-1-ol<br />
|Geraniol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>OH<br />
|Prop-2-in-1-ol<br />
|Propargyl alcohol<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" |''Alicyclic alcohols''<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>(OH)<sub>6</sub><br />
|Cyclohexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol<br />
|Inositol<br />
|-<br />
|C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>19</sub>OH<br />
|2 - (2-propyl)-5-methyl-cyclohexane-1-ol<br />
|[[Menthol]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Physical and chemical properties ==<br />
<br />
== Applications ==<br />
<br />
== Preparation ==<br />
<br />
== Reactions ==<br />
<br />
=== [[Oxidation]] ===<br />
Primary alcohols can be oxidized either to [[Aldehyde|aldehydes]] or to [[Carboxylic acid|carboxylic acids]], while the [[oxidation]] of secondary alcohols normally terminates at the [[ketone]] stage. Tertiary alcohols are resistant to [[oxidation]].<br />
<br />
The direct [[oxidation]] of primary alcohols to [[Carboxylic acid|carboxylic acids]] normally proceeds via the corresponding [[aldehyde]], which is transformed via an ''aldehyde hydrate'' by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the [[carboxylic acid]].<br />
[[File:500px-Alcohol to aldehyde to acid.png|centre|thumb|446x446px|Mechanism of [[oxidation]] of primary alcohols to [[carboxylic acids]] via [[aldehydes]] and aldehyde hydrates]]<br />
Reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to [[Aldehyde|aldehydes]] are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to [[Ketone|ketones]]. These include [[Collins reagent]] and [[Dess-Martin periodinane]]. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using [[potassium permanganate]] or the [[Jones reagent]].<br />
<br />
=== Esterification ===<br />
The [[esterification]] is a reaction of an alcohol with an acid, the result is an [[ester]].<br />
<br />
More on [[Esterification|this page]].<br />
<br />
=== Dehydration ===<br />
[[Dehydration]] is a process of separating all the [[water]] molecules from the alcohol. This is done with a dehydrating agent which is more hygroscopic than the alcohol, one such example are the [[alkali metals]], dehydrated [[Calcium chloride]] or anhydrous [[Calcium oxide]] (quicklime)<br />
This can also be done with a 3A Molecular sieve.<br />
<br />
=== Deprotonation ===<br />
<br />
Deprotonation of alcohols by superbases or active metals gives salt-like compounds called alkoxides. Because most alcohols are weaker acids than water, alkoxides are typically hydrolyzed fully and irreversibly into the original alcohol and a hydroxide. Only certain alicyclic keto-alcohols such as rhodizonic acid are acidic enough to make the corresponding alkoxides stable in aqueous solution.<br />
<br />
=== Nucleophilic substitution ===<br />
<br />
== Toxicity ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
# [[wikipedia:Alcohol|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Alcohols]]<br />
[[Category:Types of chemical]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Fischer_esterification&diff=3945Fischer esterification2016-02-19T03:03:13Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* tactics */</p>
<hr />
<div>Fisher esterification is an organic chemical reaction in which an [[Alcohol]] reacts with a [[Carboxylic acid]] in the presence of a strong acid to create an [[Ester]] and water. This is a coupling reaction. It was first described by the legendary Hermann Emil Fischer and Arthur Speier. This is a dynamic reaction which exists in equilibrium. The chemists object is to manipulate concentration and conditions to drive the reaction towards the desired product before they die of old age. Fisher esterification is slow. It helps not a bit that in reverse, water hydrolyzes an ester to return the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. Both processes coexist, so the task is not easy.<br />
<br />
==tactics==<br />
* Remove one of the products as the reaction proceeds to force the equilibrium in that direction.<br />
* Start with as little water as possible.<br />
* Start with an excess of the alcohol and let Le Chatelier do the driving.<br />
* Wear comfortable shoes.<br />
<br />
==examples==<br />
<br />
A classic example is to distill glacial [[Acetic acid]], anhydrous [[Ethanol]] with concentrated [[Sulfuric acid]] to give [[Ethyl Acetate]]. The resulting distillate can be then be further purified and re-distilled as described by [[https://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/ethyl.acetate.html Erowid]].<br />
<br />
==mechanism==<br />
<br />
Read about the mechanism [[http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Core/Organic_Chemistry/Carboxylic_Acids/Reactivity_of_Carboxylic_Acids/Fischer_esterification here]]<br />
<br />
==projects==<br />
<br />
* [[Methyl salicylate]] (Oil of Wintergreen)<br />
* [[Dimethyl Oxalate]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
[[Category:Reactions]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Fischer_esterification&diff=3944Fischer esterification2016-02-19T03:01:54Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* projects */</p>
<hr />
<div>Fisher esterification is an organic chemical reaction in which an [[Alcohol]] reacts with a [[Carboxylic acid]] in the presence of a strong acid to create an [[Ester]] and water. This is a coupling reaction. It was first described by the legendary Hermann Emil Fischer and Arthur Speier. This is a dynamic reaction which exists in equilibrium. The chemists object is to manipulate concentration and conditions to drive the reaction towards the desired product before they die of old age. Fisher esterification is slow. It helps not a bit that in reverse, water hydrolyzes an ester to return the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. Both processes coexist, so the task is not easy.<br />
<br />
==tactics==<br />
* Remove one of the products as the reaction proceeds to force the equilibrium in that direction.<br />
* Start with as little water as possible.<br />
* Start with an excess of the alcohol and let Le Chatelier do the driving.<br />
<br />
==examples==<br />
<br />
A classic example is to distill glacial [[Acetic acid]], anhydrous [[Ethanol]] with concentrated [[Sulfuric acid]] to give [[Ethyl Acetate]]. The resulting distillate can be then be further purified and re-distilled as described by [[https://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/ethyl.acetate.html Erowid]].<br />
<br />
==mechanism==<br />
<br />
Read about the mechanism [[http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Core/Organic_Chemistry/Carboxylic_Acids/Reactivity_of_Carboxylic_Acids/Fischer_esterification here]]<br />
<br />
==projects==<br />
<br />
* [[Methyl salicylate]] (Oil of Wintergreen)<br />
* [[Dimethyl Oxalate]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
[[Category:Reactions]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Fischer_esterification&diff=3943Fischer esterification2016-02-19T03:01:22Z<p>Diggafromdover: First hack</p>
<hr />
<div>Fisher esterification is an organic chemical reaction in which an [[Alcohol]] reacts with a [[Carboxylic acid]] in the presence of a strong acid to create an [[Ester]] and water. This is a coupling reaction. It was first described by the legendary Hermann Emil Fischer and Arthur Speier. This is a dynamic reaction which exists in equilibrium. The chemists object is to manipulate concentration and conditions to drive the reaction towards the desired product before they die of old age. Fisher esterification is slow. It helps not a bit that in reverse, water hydrolyzes an ester to return the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. Both processes coexist, so the task is not easy.<br />
<br />
==tactics==<br />
* Remove one of the products as the reaction proceeds to force the equilibrium in that direction.<br />
* Start with as little water as possible.<br />
* Start with an excess of the alcohol and let Le Chatelier do the driving.<br />
<br />
==examples==<br />
<br />
A classic example is to distill glacial [[Acetic acid]], anhydrous [[Ethanol]] with concentrated [[Sulfuric acid]] to give [[Ethyl Acetate]]. The resulting distillate can be then be further purified and re-distilled as described by [[https://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/ethyl.acetate.html Erowid]].<br />
<br />
==mechanism==<br />
<br />
Read about the mechanism [[http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Core/Organic_Chemistry/Carboxylic_Acids/Reactivity_of_Carboxylic_Acids/Fischer_esterification here]]<br />
<br />
==projects==<br />
<br />
* [[Methyl salicylate]] Oil of Wintergreen<br />
* [[Dimethyl Oxalate]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
[[Category:Reactions]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Fischer_esterification&diff=3942Fischer esterification2016-02-19T02:49:32Z<p>Diggafromdover: </p>
<hr />
<div>Fisher esterification is an organic chemical reaction in which an [[Alcohol]] reacts with a [[Carboxylic acid]] in the presence of a strong acid to create an [[Ester]] and water. This is a coupling reaction. It was first described by the legendary Hermann Emil Fischer and Arthur Speier. This is a dynamic reaction which exists in equilibrium. The chemists object is to manipulate concentration and conditions to drive the reaction towards the desired product before they die of old age. Fisher esterification is slow. It helps not a bit that in reverse, water hydrolyzes an ester to return the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. Both processes coexist, so the task is not easy.<br />
<br />
==examples==<br />
<br />
A classic example is to distill glacial [[Acetic acid]], anhydrous [[Ethanol]] with concentrated [[Sulfuric acid]] to give [[Ethyl Acetate]]. The resulting distillate can be then be further purified and re-distilled as described by [[https://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/ethyl.acetate.html Erowid]].<br />
<br />
==mechanism==<br />
<br />
Read about the mechanism [[http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Core/Organic_Chemistry/Carboxylic_Acids/Reactivity_of_Carboxylic_Acids/Fischer_esterification here]]<br />
<br />
==projects==<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
[[Category:Reactions]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Fischer_esterification&diff=3941Fischer esterification2016-02-19T02:43:23Z<p>Diggafromdover: </p>
<hr />
<div>Fisher esterification is an organic chemical reaction in which an [[Alcohol]] reacts with a [[Carboxylic acid]] in the presence of a strong acid to create an [[Ester]] and water. This is a coupling reaction. It was first described by the legendary Hermann Emil Fischer and Arthur Speier. This is a dynamic reaction which exists in equilibrium. The chemists object is to manipulate concentration and conditions to drive the reaction towards the desired product before they die of old age. Fisher esterification is slow. It helps not a bit that in reverse, water hydrolyzes an ester to return the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. Both processes coexist, so the task is not easy.<br />
<br />
==examples==<br />
<br />
A classic example is to distill glacial [[Acetic acid]], anhydrous [[Ethanol]] with concentrated [[Sulfuric acid]] to give [[Ethyl Acetate]]. The resulting distillate can be then be further purified and re-distilled as described by [[https://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/ethyl.acetate.html Erowid]].<br />
<br />
==mechanism==</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Fischer_esterification&diff=3940Fischer esterification2016-02-19T02:42:29Z<p>Diggafromdover: </p>
<hr />
<div>Fisher esterification is an organic chemical reaction in which an [[Alcohol]] reacts with a [[Carboxylic acid]] in the presence of a strong acid to create an [[Ester]] and water. This is a coupling reaction. It was first described by the legendary Hermann Emil Fischer and Arthur Speier. This is a dynamic reaction which exists in equilibrium. The chemists object is to manipulate concentration and conditions to drive the reaction towards the desired product before they die of old age. Fisher esterification is slow. It helps not a bit that in reverse, water hydrolyzes an ester to return the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. Both processes coexist, so the task is not easy.<br />
<br />
==examples==<br />
<br />
A classic example is to distill glacial [[Acetic acid]], anhydrous [[Ethanol]] with concentrated [[Sulfuric acid]] to give [[Ethyl Acetate]]. The resulting distillate can be then be further purified and re-distilled as described by [[https://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/ethyl.acetate.html Erowid]].</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Fischer_esterification&diff=3939Fischer esterification2016-02-19T02:36:19Z<p>Diggafromdover: </p>
<hr />
<div>Fisher esterification is an organic chemical reaction in which an [[Alcohol]] reacts with a [[Carboxylic acid]] in the presence of a strong acid to create an [[Ester]] and water. This is a coupling reaction. It was first described by the legendary Hermann Emil Fischer and Arthur Speier. This is a dynamic reaction which exists in equilibrium. The chemists object is to manipulate concentration and conditions to drive the reaction towards the desired product. <br />
In reverse, water and an ester couple to return the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. Both processes coexist, so the task is not easy.<br />
<br />
A classic example is to distill glacial [[Acetic acid]], anhydrous [[Ethanol]] with concentrated [[Sulfuric acid]] to give [[Ethyl Acetate]]. The resulting distillate can be then be further purified and re-distilled as described by [[https://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/ethyl.acetate.html Erowid]].</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Fischer_esterification&diff=3938Fischer esterification2016-02-19T02:23:22Z<p>Diggafromdover: </p>
<hr />
<div>Fisher esterification is an organic chemical reaction in which an [[Alcohol]] reacts with a [[Carboxylic acid]] in the presence of a strong acid to create an [[Ester]] and water. This is a coupling reaction. It was first described by the legendary Hermann Emil Fischer and Arthur Speier. This is a dynamic reaction which exists in equilibrium. The chemists object is to manipulate concentration and conditions to drive the reaction towards the desired product. <br />
In reverse, water and an ester couple to return the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. Both processes coexist, so the task is not easy.</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Fischer_esterification&diff=3937Fischer esterification2016-02-19T02:22:02Z<p>Diggafromdover: Created page with "Fisher esterification is an organic chemical reaction in which an alcohol reacts with a carboxylic acid in the presence of a strong acid to create an ester and water. This is..."</p>
<hr />
<div>Fisher esterification is an organic chemical reaction in which an alcohol reacts with a carboxylic acid in the presence of a strong acid to create an ester and water. This is a coupling reaction. It was first described by the legendary Hermann Emil Fischer and Arthur Speier. This is a dynamic reaction which exists in equilibrium. The chemists object is to manipulate concentration and conditions to drive the reaction towards the desired product. <br />
In reverse, water and an ester couple to return the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. Both processes coexist, so the task is not easy.</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=User:Diggafromdover&diff=3906User:Diggafromdover2016-02-15T01:31:05Z<p>Diggafromdover: Created page with "When I was young an foolish, I got a degree in Chemistry. Because I was young and foolish, I never used it - until now..."</p>
<hr />
<div>When I was young an foolish, I got a degree in <br />
Chemistry. Because I was young and foolish, I never used it - until now...</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=SN1&diff=3905SN12016-02-15T01:27:45Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Overview==<br />
'''SN1''' is an acronym for an Nucleophilic substitution reaction where the rate of the reaction is dependent on the concentration of one of the reactants:<br />
<br />
'''(S)'''ubstitution<br />
'''(N)'''ucleophilic <br />
'''(1)'''reactant determines rate.<br />
<br />
==Rate==<br />
Counter intuitively, SN1 reactions proceed in two steps, the first of which is the rate determining step and the second of which occurs almost instantaneously. A good analogy is sitting down on a park bench where all the benches are occupied by sleeping vagrants. You wait for one to wake up and shamble off - then you sit down. (In SN2, you simply boot the bum off the bench and repose.)<br />
<br />
The more vagrants you have, the faster one will wake up and vacate a bench. In this scenario we call the vagrant a leaving group. The leaving group is an anion. When it leaves, the park bench becomes a [[carbocation]], and is ready for it's Nucleophile.<br />
<br />
Once the leaving group has shuffled off, the remaining carbocation's geometry changes. Where the target molecule had been tetrahedral with 4 sp3 bonds, the carbocation is trigonal planar with three sp2 orbitals and is flat. To either side, empty p orbitals invite attack.<br />
<br />
== Chirality==<br />
<br />
Depending on the composition of the three entities surrounding the carbon at the center of the carbocation or substrate, the result of the reaction may be different for attack at the front from attack at the back. If all 3 are different, then the result of the reaction will be a [[racemic mixture]] of left and right handed enantiomers, which may not be equally useful.<br />
<br />
Regardless of which side is attacked, a nucleophile clamps on creates an even larger carbocation. This promptly loses a proton to a base, usually the leaving group.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Leaving Groups==<br />
<br />
Halogens, particularly Bromine and Iodine, make great leaving groups. Their bond to carbon can be broken more easily. Chlorine is less desirable, and Fluorine, like unwanted in laws, almost never leaves.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Nucleophiles==<br />
<br />
Water is the simplest Nucleophile. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Solvents==<br />
<br />
SN1 reactions work more favorably in a polar solvent. That carbocation will form more readily if the solvent can help the leaving group leave.<br />
<br />
Water is also a polar solvent, as are alcohols.<br />
<br />
==Steric Considerations==<br />
<br />
If one visualizes a fat person on a unicycle, the situation is clear. When the unicycle leaves, the entity remaining becomes more stable, if bruised. The more encumbered the substrate, the more easily enough energy can be found to evict the leaving group. Smaller, tighter molecules are much less likely to lose the leaving group. <br />
<br />
A tertiary halide is a much more desirable candidate for SN1 than a secondary halide, which is itself more likely a candidate than a primary halide.<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
[https://www.khanacademy.org/science/organic-chemistry/substitution-elimination-reactions/sn1-sn2-tutorial/v/sn1-reaction-mechanism Khan Academy lecture on SN1 Mechanism.]<br />
<br />
[Note: SN1 SN2, E1 and E2 are important and retaining the information has been difficult for me. I am writing this out for my benefit and yours using a variety of references and my own POV.]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Reactions]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=SN1&diff=3904SN12016-02-15T01:25:01Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Rate */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Overview==<br />
'''SN1''' is an acronym for an Nucleophilic substitution reaction where the rate of the reaction is dependent on the concentration of one of the reactants:<br />
<br />
'''(S)'''ubstitution<br />
'''(N)'''ucleophilic <br />
'''(1)'''reactant determines rate.<br />
<br />
==Rate==<br />
Counter intuitively, SN1 reactions proceed in two steps, the first of which is the rate determining step and the second of which occurs almost instantaneously. A good analogy is sitting down on a park bench where all the benches are occupied by sleeping vagrants. You wait for one to wake up and shamble off - then you sit down. (In SN2, you simply boot the bum off the bench and repose.)<br />
<br />
The more vagrants you have, the faster one will wake up and vacate a bench. In this scenario we call the vagrant a leaving group. The leaving group is an anion. When it leaves, the park bench becomes a [[carbocation]], and is ready for it's Nucleophile.<br />
<br />
Once the leaving group has shuffled off, the remaining carbocation's geometry changes. Where the target molecule had been tetrahedral with 4 sp3 bonds, the carbocation is trigonal planar with three sp2 orbitals and is flat. To either side, empty p orbitals invite attack.<br />
<br />
== Chirality==<br />
<br />
Depending on the composition of the three entities surrounding the carbon at the center of the carbocation or substrate, the result of the reaction may be different for attack at the front from attack at the back. If all 3 are different, then the result of the reaction will be a [[racemic mixture]] of left and right handed enantiomers, which may not be equally useful.<br />
<br />
Regardless of which side is attacked, a nucleophile clamps on creates an even larger carbocation. This promptly loses a proton to a base, usually the leaving group.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Leaving Groups==<br />
<br />
Halogens, particularly Bromine and Iodine, make great leaving groups. Their bond to carbon can be broken more easily. Chlorine is less desirable, and Fluorine, like unwanted in laws, almost never leaves.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Nucleophiles==<br />
<br />
Water is the simplest Nucleophile. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Solvents==<br />
<br />
SN1 reactions work more favorably in a polar solvent. That carbocation will form more readily if the solvent can help the leaving group leave.<br />
<br />
Water is also a polar solvent, as are alcohols.<br />
<br />
==Steric Considerations==<br />
<br />
If one visualizes a fat person on a unicycle, the situation is clear. When the unicycle leaves, the entity remaining becomes more stable, if bruised. The more encumbered the substrate, the more easily enough energy can be found to evict the leaving group. Smaller, tighter molecules are much less likely to lose the leaving group. <br />
<br />
A tertiary halide is a much more desirable candidate for SN1 than a secondary halide, which is itself more likely a candidate than a primary halide.<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
[Note: SN1 SN2, E1 and E2 are important and retaining the information has been difficult for me. I am writing this out for my benefit and yours using a variety of references and my own POV.]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Reactions]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Double_replacement&diff=3903Double replacement2016-02-15T01:21:52Z<p>Diggafromdover: </p>
<hr />
<div>A double replacement is a reaction where two cations exchange anions or vice versa.<br />
[[Category:Reactions]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Double_replacement&diff=3902Double replacement2016-02-15T01:20:48Z<p>Diggafromdover: Created page with "A double replacement is a reaction where two cations exchange anions or vice versa."</p>
<hr />
<div>A double replacement is a reaction where two cations exchange anions or vice versa.</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_nitrate&diff=3901Urea nitrate2016-02-15T01:19:34Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Preparation */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
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'''Urea nitrate''' is the nitrate salt of the organic base [[urea]]. It is an explosive material used in various applications, but it has gained a bad reputation due to its use in many terrorists plots, such as the World Trade Center bombing in 1993.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Urea nitrate is unstable in basic solution. It also hydrolyzes in solution, which is quite acidic (urea being a very weak base); hot water causes the hydrolysis to proceed more fully, and nitric acid can be distilled back from the solution if heated enough.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea nitrate is a white solid, sparingly soluble in water (less so than urea itself). Its solubility in cold water is significantly less than in warm water.<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Due to being an explosive material, the sale of urea nitrate is restricted.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by reacting urea with nitric acid. The reaction is exothermic, so it's best to do it at low temperatures.<br />
<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared via a [[double replacement]] by combining urea with a nitrate salt and concentrated hydrochloric acid in water. Gentle heat, as from a water bath, should be added to bring the urea and nitrate into solution before the HCL is added. The turbid solution clears as the HCL is added and a copious precipitate of urea nitrate is obtained when the solution is cooled below 0 Celsius. The remaining solution contains a small amount of product and the chloride salt of the cation whose nitrate was used.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*Make blasting caps<br />
*Prepare Urea Nitrate from assorted nitrates, recovering the chloride in each case.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea Nitrate appears to be a flame retardant. Filter paper soaked in it and dried will char in a butane lighter flame but not catch fire.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Storage should be limited to very small amounts, as larger amounts may invite visits by ''Les Gendarmes.''<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Casual tests are planned to evaluate using Urea Nitrate as a house plant food.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate without Nitric Acid <br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=13470 Synthesizing UN with calcium nitrate]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=10362 Urea Nitrate Procedure Mechanism]<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrated organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrates]]<br />
[[Category:Energetic materials]]<br />
[[Category:High explosives]]<br />
[[Category:Things that can kill you very quickly]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_nitrate&diff=3900Urea nitrate2016-02-15T01:12:01Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
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| Appearance = <br />
| BoilingPt = <br />
| BoilingPtC = <br />
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| Density = 1.69 g/cm<sup>3</sup><br />
| Formula = CH<sub>5</sub>N<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub><br />
| HenryConstant = <br />
| LogP = <br />
| MolarMass = 123.068 g/mol<br />
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| MainHazards = Explosive<br />
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'''Urea nitrate''' is the nitrate salt of the organic base [[urea]]. It is an explosive material used in various applications, but it has gained a bad reputation due to its use in many terrorists plots, such as the World Trade Center bombing in 1993.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Urea nitrate is unstable in basic solution. It also hydrolyzes in solution, which is quite acidic (urea being a very weak base); hot water causes the hydrolysis to proceed more fully, and nitric acid can be distilled back from the solution if heated enough.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea nitrate is a white solid, sparingly soluble in water (less so than urea itself). Its solubility in cold water is significantly less than in warm water.<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Due to being an explosive material, the sale of urea nitrate is restricted.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by reacting urea with nitric acid. The reaction is exothermic, so it's best to do it at low temperatures.<br />
<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by combining urea with a nitrate salt and concentrated hydrochloric acid in water. Gentle heat, as from a water bath, should be added to bring the urea and nitrate into solution before the HCL is added. The turbid solution clears as the HCL is added and a copious precipitate of urea nitrate is obtained when the solution is cooled below 0 Celsius. The remaining solution contains a small amount of product and the chloride salt of the cation whose nitrate was used.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*Make blasting caps<br />
*Prepare Urea Nitrate from assorted nitrates, recovering the chloride in each case.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea Nitrate appears to be a flame retardant. Filter paper soaked in it and dried will char in a butane lighter flame but not catch fire.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Storage should be limited to very small amounts, as larger amounts may invite visits by ''Les Gendarmes.''<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Casual tests are planned to evaluate using Urea Nitrate as a house plant food.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate without Nitric Acid <br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=13470 Synthesizing UN with calcium nitrate]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=10362 Urea Nitrate Procedure Mechanism]<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrated organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrates]]<br />
[[Category:Energetic materials]]<br />
[[Category:High explosives]]<br />
[[Category:Things that can kill you very quickly]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_nitrate&diff=3899Urea nitrate2016-02-15T01:10:41Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Preparation */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
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'''Urea nitrate''' is the nitrate salt of the organic base [[urea]]. It is an explosive material used in various applications, but it has gained a bad reputation due to its use in many terrorists plots, such as the World Trade Center bombing in 1993.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Urea nitrate is unstable in basic solution. It also hydrolyzes in solution, which is quite acidic (urea being a very weak base); hot water causes the hydrolysis to proceed more fully, and nitric acid can be distilled back from the solution if heated enough.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea nitrate is a white solid, sparingly soluble in water (less so than urea itself). Its solubility in cold water is significantly less than in warm water.<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Due to being an explosive material, the sale of urea nitrate is restricted.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by reacting urea with nitric acid. The reaction is exothermic, so it's best to do it at low temperatures.<br />
<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by combining urea with a nitrate salt and concentrated hydrochloric acid in water. Gentle heat, as from a water bath, should be added to bring the urea and nitrate into solution before the HCL is added. The turbid solution clears as the HCL is added and a copious precipitate of urea nitrate is obtained when the solution is cooled below 0 Celsius. The remaining solution contains a small amount of product and the chloride salt of the cation whose nitrate was used.<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*Make blasting caps<br />
*Prepare Urea Nitrate from assorted nitrates, recovering the chloride in each case.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea Nitrate appears to be a flame retardant. Filter paper soaked in it and dried will char in a butane lighter flame but not catch fire.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Storage should be limited to very small amounts, as larger amounts may invite visits by ''Les Gendarmes.''<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Casual tests are planned to evaluate using Urea Nitrate as a house plant food.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*<div id="1">1</div>[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate from Urea and Potassium Nitrate <br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=13470 Synthesizing UN with calcium nitrate]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=10362 Urea Nitrate Procedure Mechanism]<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrated organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrates]]<br />
[[Category:Energetic materials]]<br />
[[Category:High explosives]]<br />
[[Category:Things that can kill you very quickly]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_nitrate&diff=3898Urea nitrate2016-02-15T01:10:02Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
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| Density = 1.69 g/cm<sup>3</sup><br />
| Formula = CH<sub>5</sub>N<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub><br />
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| MolarMass = 123.068 g/mol<br />
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| MeltingPtC = 163<br />
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| MeltingPt_notes = <br />
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| Solvent = <br />
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| NFPA-H = <br />
| NFPA-R = <br />
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}}<br />
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| OtherAnions = <br />
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}}<br />
}}<br />
'''Urea nitrate''' is the nitrate salt of the organic base [[urea]]. It is an explosive material used in various applications, but it has gained a bad reputation due to its use in many terrorists plots, such as the World Trade Center bombing in 1993.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Urea nitrate is unstable in basic solution. It also hydrolyzes in solution, which is quite acidic (urea being a very weak base); hot water causes the hydrolysis to proceed more fully, and nitric acid can be distilled back from the solution if heated enough.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea nitrate is a white solid, sparingly soluble in water (less so than urea itself). Its solubility in cold water is significantly less than in warm water.<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Due to being an explosive material, the sale of urea nitrate is restricted.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by reacting urea with nitric acid. The reaction is exothermic, so it's best to do it at low temperatures.<br />
<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by combining urea with a nitrate salt and concentrated hydrochloric acid in water. Gentle heat, as from a water bath, should be added to bring the urea and nitrate into solution before the HCL is added. The turbid solution clears as the HCL is added and a copious precipitate of urea nitrate is obtained when the solution is cooled below 0 Celsius. The remaining solution contains a small amount of product and the chloride salt of the cation whose nitrate was used. [[#See also | 1]]<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*Make blasting caps<br />
*Prepare Urea Nitrate from assorted nitrates, recovering the chloride in each case.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea Nitrate appears to be a flame retardant. Filter paper soaked in it and dried will char in a butane lighter flame but not catch fire.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Storage should be limited to very small amounts, as larger amounts may invite visits by ''Les Gendarmes.''<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Casual tests are planned to evaluate using Urea Nitrate as a house plant food.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*<div id="1">1</div>[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate from Urea and Potassium Nitrate <br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=13470 Synthesizing UN with calcium nitrate]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=10362 Urea Nitrate Procedure Mechanism]<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrated organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrates]]<br />
[[Category:Energetic materials]]<br />
[[Category:High explosives]]<br />
[[Category:Things that can kill you very quickly]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_nitrate&diff=3897Urea nitrate2016-02-15T01:09:02Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* Preparation */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
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| 3DMet = <br />
| Abbreviations = <br />
| SMILES = <br />
}}<br />
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties<br />
| AtmosphericOHRateConstant = <br />
| Appearance = <br />
| BoilingPt = <br />
| BoilingPtC = <br />
| BoilingPt_ref = <br />
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| Density = 1.69 g/cm<sup>3</sup><br />
| Formula = CH<sub>5</sub>N<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub><br />
| HenryConstant = <br />
| LogP = <br />
| MolarMass = 123.068 g/mol<br />
| MeltingPt = <br />
| MeltingPtC = 163<br />
| MeltingPt_ref = <br />
| MeltingPt_notes = <br />
| pKa = <br />
| pKb = <br />
| Solubility = 15 g/100 ml<br />
| SolubleOther = Soluble in [[ethanol]]<br />
| Solvent = <br />
| VaporPressure = <br />
}}<br />
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure<br />
| Coordination = <br />
| CrystalStruct = <br />
| MolShape = <br />
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| Entropy = <br />
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}}<br />
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| REFactor = <br />
}}<br />
| Section6 = {{Chembox Hazards<br />
| AutoignitionPt = <br />
| ExploLimits = <br />
| ExternalMSDS = <br />
| FlashPt = <br />
| LD50 = <br />
| LC50 = <br />
| MainHazards = Explosive<br />
| NFPA-F = <br />
| NFPA-H = <br />
| NFPA-R = <br />
| NFPA-S = <br />
}}<br />
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| OtherAnions = <br />
| OtherCations = <br />
| OtherFunction = <br />
| OtherFunction_label = <br />
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}}<br />
}}<br />
'''Urea nitrate''' is the nitrate salt of the organic base [[urea]]. It is an explosive material used in various applications, but it has gained a bad reputation due to its use in many terrorists plots, such as the World Trade Center bombing in 1993.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Urea nitrate is unstable in basic solution. It also hydrolyzes in solution, which is quite acidic (urea being a very weak base); hot water causes the hydrolysis to proceed more fully, and nitric acid can be distilled back from the solution if heated enough.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea nitrate is a white solid, sparingly soluble in water (less so than urea itself). Its solubility in cold water is significantly less than in warm water.<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Due to being an explosive material, the sale of urea nitrate is restricted.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by reacting urea with nitric acid. The reaction is exothermic, so it's best to do it at low temperatures.<br />
<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by combining urea with a nitrate salt and concentrated hydrochloric acid in water. Gentle heat, as from a water bath, should be added to bring the urea and nitrate into solution before the HCL is added. The turbid solution clears as the HCL is added and a copious precipitate of urea nitrate is obtained when the solution is cooled below 0 Celsius. The remaining solution contains a small amount of product and the chloride salt of the cation whose nitrate was used. [[#See also | 1]]<br />
<br />
==Projects==<br />
*Make blasting caps<br />
*Prepare Urea Nitrate from assorted nitrates, recovering the chloride in each case.<br />
<br />
==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea Nitrate appears to be a flame retardant. Filter paper soaked in it and dried will char in a butane lighter flame but not catch fire.<br />
<br />
===Storage===<br />
Storage should be limited to very small amounts, as larger amounts may invite visits by ''Les Gendarmes.''<br />
<br />
===Disposal===<br />
Casual tests are planned to evaluate using Urea Nitrate as a house plant food.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate from Urea and Potassium Nitrate <div id="1">1</div><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=13470 Synthesizing UN with calcium nitrate]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=10362 Urea Nitrate Procedure Mechanism]<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrated organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrates]]<br />
[[Category:Energetic materials]]<br />
[[Category:High explosives]]<br />
[[Category:Things that can kill you very quickly]]</div>Diggafromdoverhttps://www.sciencemadness.org/smwiki/index.php?title=Urea_nitrate&diff=3896Urea nitrate2016-02-15T01:08:19Z<p>Diggafromdover: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Chembox<br />
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| Reference =<br />
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<!-- Sections --><br />
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers<br />
| 3DMet = <br />
| Abbreviations = <br />
| SMILES = <br />
}}<br />
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties<br />
| AtmosphericOHRateConstant = <br />
| Appearance = <br />
| BoilingPt = <br />
| BoilingPtC = <br />
| BoilingPt_ref = <br />
| BoilingPt_notes = <br />
| Density = 1.69 g/cm<sup>3</sup><br />
| Formula = CH<sub>5</sub>N<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub><br />
| HenryConstant = <br />
| LogP = <br />
| MolarMass = 123.068 g/mol<br />
| MeltingPt = <br />
| MeltingPtC = 163<br />
| MeltingPt_ref = <br />
| MeltingPt_notes = <br />
| pKa = <br />
| pKb = <br />
| Solubility = 15 g/100 ml<br />
| SolubleOther = Soluble in [[ethanol]]<br />
| Solvent = <br />
| VaporPressure = <br />
}}<br />
| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure<br />
| Coordination = <br />
| CrystalStruct = <br />
| MolShape = <br />
}}<br />
| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry<br />
| DeltaGf = <br />
| DeltaHc = <br />
| DeltaHf = <br />
| Entropy = <br />
| HeatCapacity = <br />
}}<br />
| Section5 = {{Chembox Explosive<br />
| ShockSens = <br />
| FrictionSens = <br />
| DetonationV = 3,400 m/s<br />
| REFactor = <br />
}}<br />
| Section6 = {{Chembox Hazards<br />
| AutoignitionPt = <br />
| ExploLimits = <br />
| ExternalMSDS = <br />
| FlashPt = <br />
| LD50 = <br />
| LC50 = <br />
| MainHazards = Explosive<br />
| NFPA-F = <br />
| NFPA-H = <br />
| NFPA-R = <br />
| NFPA-S = <br />
}}<br />
| Section7 = {{Chembox Related<br />
| OtherAnions = <br />
| OtherCations = <br />
| OtherFunction = <br />
| OtherFunction_label = <br />
| OtherCompounds = <br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
'''Urea nitrate''' is the nitrate salt of the organic base [[urea]]. It is an explosive material used in various applications, but it has gained a bad reputation due to its use in many terrorists plots, such as the World Trade Center bombing in 1993.<br />
<br />
==Properties==<br />
===Chemical===<br />
Urea nitrate is unstable in basic solution. It also hydrolyzes in solution, which is quite acidic (urea being a very weak base); hot water causes the hydrolysis to proceed more fully, and nitric acid can be distilled back from the solution if heated enough.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Urea nitrate is a white solid, sparingly soluble in water (less so than urea itself). Its solubility in cold water is significantly less than in warm water.<br />
<br />
==Availability==<br />
Due to being an explosive material, the sale of urea nitrate is restricted.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by reacting urea with nitric acid. The reaction is exothermic, so it's best to do it at low temperatures.<br />
<br />
Urea nitrate can be prepared by combining urea with a nitrate salt and concentrated hydrochloric acid in water. Gentle heat, as from a water bath, should be added to bring the urea and nitrate into solution before the HCL is added. The turbid solution clears as the HCL is added and a copious precipitate of urea nitrate is obtained when the solution is cooled below 0 Celsius. The remaining solution contains a small amount of product and the chloride salt of the cation whose nitrate was used. [[#See also 1]]<br />
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==Projects==<br />
*Make blasting caps<br />
*Prepare Urea Nitrate from assorted nitrates, recovering the chloride in each case.<br />
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==Handling==<br />
===Safety===<br />
Urea Nitrate appears to be a flame retardant. Filter paper soaked in it and dried will char in a butane lighter flame but not catch fire.<br />
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===Storage===<br />
Storage should be limited to very small amounts, as larger amounts may invite visits by ''Les Gendarmes.''<br />
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===Disposal===<br />
Casual tests are planned to evaluate using Urea Nitrate as a house plant food.<br />
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==References==<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/megapyro6/Pyro/UN.html Making Urea Nitrate from Urea and Potassium Nitrate <div id="1">1</div><br />
===Relevant Sciencemadness threads===<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=13470 Synthesizing UN with calcium nitrate]<br />
*[http://www.sciencemadness.org/talk/viewthread.php?tid=10362 Urea Nitrate Procedure Mechanism]<br />
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrated organic compounds]]<br />
[[Category:Nitrates]]<br />
[[Category:Energetic materials]]<br />
[[Category:High explosives]]<br />
[[Category:Things that can kill you very quickly]]</div>Diggafromdover